Canada

Geography

Pre-Columbian History

• Sparsely-populated, due to unfavorable climate.

  • Southern Canada: First Nations (native American tribes).
  • Northern Canada: Inuit (or Eskimos).

• Site of first European settlement in the Americas: L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, circa 1000 A.D.

• Perhaps 1/2 million people in Canada circa 1500 A.D.

European Colonization

• British settlement focused on Newfoundland and Nova Scotia.

• French settlement along the St. Lawrence River (known as Canada) and in Acadia: New France.

• Seven Years' War/French and Indian War (1754–63) brought all French territory east of the Mississippi River under British control.

Between the Wars (1763–75)

• Territory reorganized into three colonies: Québec, Prince Edward Island, and an enlarged Nova Scotia.

• Quebec Act (1774): Expanded boundaries west and south, entrenched French law and customs.

• Lack of an elected assembly angered English-speaking colonists there and in other colonies.

• Atlantic colonies saw westward expansion limited.

After U.S. Independence (1783)

• Québec's southern lands ceded to the United States (became U.S. Northwest Territory).

• Many pro-British Loyalists settled in southern Québec, south of the St. Lawrence River and west of the Ottawa River.

• Expanding English-speaking population led to split of Nova Scotia (creating New Brunswick) and Québec (creating Upper Canada and Lower Canada).

War of 1812 and Rebellions

• U.S. attempt to conquer Canada in War of 1812 failed; most Canadians were loyal to Britain but wanted political reform.

• Rebellions in 1837–38 attempt to overthrow colonial governments in both Canadas, demand more accountability to the mass public.

• British response: merge Upper and Lower Canada into single Province of Canada (1840), eventual adoption of responsible government (1849).

Confederation

• Province of Canada unstable: Francophone/Catholic Canada East and Anglophone/Anglican Canada West had fundamental disagreements.

• “Double-majority” rule, equal representation for east and west gave disproportionate power to Canada West.

• American expansionism and British indifference to Canadian affairs led colonies to explore union.

• Three conferences of colonial leaders agreed to a federal structure with four provinces: Québec (Canada East), Ontario (Canada West), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.

Expanding the Confederation

• Dominion of Canada established July 1, 1867 (Canada Day).

• Lands controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company become the Northwest Territories in 1870.

• Three provinces added in 1870s: Manitoba (1870), British Columbia (1871), and Prince Edward Island (1873).

• Saskatchewan and Alberta become provinces in 1905.

• Newfoundland and Labrador (separate colony since 1583) becomes a province in 1949.

• Three territories remain: Northwest Territories (1870), Yukon (1898), and Nunavut (1999).

Canadian independence—when?

• 1867? British North America Act grants self-government in many, but not all affairs.

  • Foreign policy remained in hands of UK Parliament.

  • Example: World War I.

• 1931? Statute of Westminster repeals ability of British parliament to legislate on most, but not all, Canadian matters w/o consent of Canadian authorities.

• 1982? UK Canada Act “patriated” the Canadian constitution, allowed amendments without agreement by the British parliament.

Canada's Constitution

• Constitution Act (BNA Act), 1867

  • A “Constitution similar in principle to That of the United Kingdom”
  • Parliamentary system with fusion of powers.
  • …but federal, rather than unitary, in nature.

• Constitution Act, 1982

  • Charter of Rights and Freedoms
  • Amendment procedures

• Unwritten elements

  • Constitutional conventions
  • Royal prerogative powers
  • Principles derived from the (unwritten) UK constitution

Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982)

• Similar rights to U.S. Bill of Rights and Reconstruction Amendments.

• Key differences:

  • Linguistic rights for English-speaking and French-speaking minorities.

  • Affirmative action programs expressly permitted.

  • Notwithstanding clause allows Parliament, provincial legislatures to enact laws that contradict Charter guarantees, effective for up to 5 years (renewable).

Canadian Federalism

• Unlike U.S. Constitution, original intent was for a stronger national government:

  • Federal control of criminal law, all forms of commerce.
  • Limited provincial taxation powers.
  • Federal, not provincial, reserve powers.

• In practice, much more decentralized today:

  • Most constitutional changes require consent of provinces.
  • Devolution to satisfy Québec, western provinces.
  • Sales taxes, federal revenue sharing programs.

Parliament of Canada

• The Monarch

• The House of Commons

• The Senate

The Monarch

• Executive power is nominally vested in the King (or Queen) of Canada.

• Governor General of Canada (or viceroy) acts on monarch's behalf when not present in Canada.

  • Appointed by the King or Queen on advice of the Canadian prime minister.
  • Traditionally serves for five years.
  • Acts on the advice of the prime minister.
  • Current governor general: Inuit politician Mary May Simon, since July 2021.

The House of Commons

• Modeled on the British House of Commons

• Since 2015 election: 338 members, elected from single member districts (informally ridings).

  • Roughly apportioned by population by province.
  • Each province has at least as many MPs as Senators.
  • Territories have one MP each.
  • Serve up to four years; Parliament can be dissolved early due to a no confidence motion or at request of the prime minister.

The Senate

• No Canadian aristocracy, but represented wealthy nonetheless.

• 105 seats, apportioned to provinces by constitution.

  • Western provinces underrepresented.
  • Atlantic provinces overrepresented.

• Vacant seats filled by prime minister for life terms; must retire at 75.

• Nominally equal in power to Commons; by convention, does not block laws passed by Commons.

Reforming Parliament

• The Senate: election or abolition?

• The Commons:

  • Electoral reform?
  • More effective committees, backbenchers?

The Prime Minister and Cabinet

• Like in most parliamentary systems, prime minister and his/her cabinet is responsible to Parliament.

• Current government led by Justin Trudeau of the Liberal Party, PM since November 2015.

• Unlike UK, minority governments since World War II have been fairly common due to multiparty system.

Major Political Parties

• Conservative Party (Tories): 2004 merger of the former Progressive Conservatives and Reform Party; center-right.

• Liberal Party (Grits): traditional “party of government”; centrist/center-left.

• New Democratic Party: left-wing party, social democratic orientation.

• Bloc Québecois: pro-independence party for Québec.

• Most provincial parties are only loosely tied to their federal counterparts.

Provincial Governments

• Lieutenant Governor: represents the monarch, appointed on advice of federal prime minister.

• Unicameral legislatures.

• Premier and cabinet responsible to the legislature.

• Territorial governments similar; usually less partisan.

Societal divisions

• Language and culture: Québec and francophones; First Nations.

• Western alienation (versus ON/QC).

• Social issues increasingly divisive.

• Immigration: assimilation versus multiculturalism.

Secessionism in Québec

• Independence referenda failed in 1980, 1995.

• Pro-independence Parti Québecois seeks greater devolution of power.

• First Nations in northern Québec may want to stay in Canada.

• English Canada: viable without Québec?

The 363 kg Gorilla

• Living next to [the United States] is in some ways like sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly and even-tempered is the beast, if I can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt. — Pierre Trudeau.

• Asymmetric relationship: U.S. mostly ignores Canada; Canada deeply affected by U.S. policies.

• Disputes: fishing rights, trade disputes (softwood lumber), Keystone XL pipeline, post-9/11 border security.

• NAFTA was controversial; prospect of deeper cooperation with the U.S. (customs union, single market) raises sovereignty fears.